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But intelligence testing has also been accused of unfairly stratifying test-takers by race, gender, class and culture; of minimizing the importance of creativity, character and practical know-how; and of propagating the idea that people are born with an unchangeable endowment of intellectual potential that determines their success in life.
The psychological methods of testing intelligence
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As a result, many of the biases identified by critics of intelligence testing have been reduced, and new tests are available that, unlike traditional intelligence tests, are based on modern theories of brain function, says Alan Kaufman, PhD, a clinical professor of psychology at the Yale School of Medicine.
For example, in the early 1980s, Kaufman and his wife, Nadeen Kaufman, EdD, a lecturer at the Yale School of Medicine, published the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), then one of the only alternatives to the WISC and the Stanford-Binet. Together with the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability, first published in the late 1970s, and later tests, such as the Differential Ability Scales and the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), the K-ABC helped expand the field of intelligence testing beyond the traditional tests.
According to Nadeen Kaufman, that might not be easy to do. She believes that the practice of intelligence testing is divided between those with a neuropsychological bent, who have little interest in the subtleties of new quantitative tests, and those with an educational bent, who are increasingly shifting their interest away from intelligence and toward achievement. Neither group, in her opinion, is eager to adopt new intelligence tests.
The Kaufmans and Naglieri have worked within the testing community to effect change; their main concern is with the way tests are used, not with the basic philosophy of testing. But other reformers have launched more fundamental criticisms, ranging from "Emotional Intelligence" (Bantam Books, 1995), by Daniel Goleman, PhD, which suggested that "EI" can matter more than IQ (see article on page 52), to the multiple intelligences theory of Harvard University psychologist Howard Gardner, PhD, and the triarchic theory of successful intelligence of APA President Robert J. Sternberg, PhD, of Yale University. These very different theories have one thing in common: the assumption that traditional theories and tests fail to capture essential aspects of intelligence.
In the early 1980s, for example, Gardner attacked the idea that there was a single, immutable intelligence, instead suggesting that there were at least seven distinct intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal. (He has since added existential and naturalist intelligences.) But that formulation has had little impact on testing, in part because the kinds of quantitative factor-analytic studies that might validate the theory in the eyes of the testing community have never been conducted.
Sternberg, in contrast, has taken a more direct approach to changing the practice of testing. His Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) is a battery of multiple-choice questions that tap into the three independent aspects of intelligence--analytic, practical and creative--proposed in his triarchic theory.
Even staunch supporters of intelligence testing, such as Naglieri and the Kaufmans, believe that the IQ-achievement discrepancy model is flawed. But, unlike the PCESE, they don't see that as a reason for getting rid of intelligence tests altogether.
Intelligence tests help psychologists make recommendations about the kind of teaching that will benefit a child most, according to Ron Palomares, PhD, assistant executive director in the APA Practice Directorate's Office of Policy and Advocacy in the Schools. Psychologists are taught to assess patterns of performance on intelligence tests and to obtain clinical observations of the child during the testing session. That, he says, removes the focus from a single IQ score and allows for an assessment of the child as a whole, which can then be used to develop individualized teaching strategies.
Critics of intelligence testing often fail to consider that most of the alternatives are even more prone to problems of fairness and validity than the measures that are currently used, says APA President-elect Diane F. Halpern, PhD, of Claremont McKenna College.
William Stern decided that "personalistic psychology" or individuality was destined to be the psychological problem of the twentieth century. He attempted to classify people according to types, norms, and aberrations. To Stern, it was in the process of investigating individuality that the real essence of personality and intelligence could be discovered. Stern was influenced by the work of Binet and his studies of intelligence in children. As a result, Stern reviewed the principle findings in the field and developed the idea of expressing intelligence test results in the form of a single number, the intelligence quotient.
W. Joel Schneider is a psychologist at Illinois State University, dividing his time equally between the Clinical-Counseling program and the Quantitative Psychology program. He also runs the College Learning Assessment Service in which students and adults from the community can learn about their cognitive and academic strengths and weaknesses. His primary research interests lie in evaluating psychological evaluations. He is also interested in helping clinicians use statistical tools to improve case conceptualization and diagnostic decisions. Schneider writes Assessing Psyche, one of my favorite blogs on IQ testing and assessment. I was delighted when he agreed to do an interview with me.
There are countless ways in which this can happen. Language and other cultural barriers cause intelligence tests to produce underestimates of intelligence. It is quite common to fail to get sustained optimal effort from young children and from people with a number of mental disorders. In these cases, all but the most obtuse clinicians will recognize that something is amiss and will take appropriate action (e.g., find a more appropriate test or discontinue testing until optimal effort is again possible). Unfortunately, a single obtuse clinician can do a lot of damage.
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning,mental representation, problem solving, and decisionmaking), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meetthe demands of the environment effectively.Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for adaptationto, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmentalcontext (1997, p. 1) Table of contentsBrief history of intelligenceTheories of intelligenceTypes of intelligenceIntelligence testingCriticism of intelligence testingExtremes of intelligenceIntelligence todayReferencesA Brief History of IntelligenceA Brief History of IntelligenceThe study of human intelligence dates back to the late 1800s when Sir Francis Galton (the cousin of Charles Darwin) became one of the first people to study intelligence.
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Social Psychology Section, Department of Sociology, Makerere University. How to reference this article:How to reference this article:Ruhl , C. (2020, July 16). Intelligence: definition, theories and testing. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/intelligence.htmlvar domainroot="www.simplypsychology.org"function Gsitesearch(curobj)curobj.q.value="site:"+domainroot+" "+curobj.qfront.value 2ff7e9595c
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